Well-being of international and refugee-background students

Student well‑being is a broad, multi‑layered concept that reflects the extent to which students cognitively evaluate and emotionally experience the self in positive or negative ways (Van Bommel et al., 2024). It spans three domains: psychological well‑being (meaning in life, self‑esteem, autonomy), social well‑being (relatedness, sense of belonging) and physical well‑being (subjective health, body acceptance).

A wide range of factors shape student well‑being (RIVM & Trimbos Institute, 2025; Slimmen et al., 2025; Szepe & Meszaros, 2024; Van Bommel et al., 2024; Corney et al., 2024; Muja et al., 2024; Sanci et al., 2022; The Class Foundation, 2024). Demographic and individual characteristics such as gender, age, personality and mindset play a role. The social environment – including emotional support and peer contact – also strongly influences well‑being, as do educational conditions such as the university setting, quality of teaching, field of study and year of study. Lastly, health-related behaviours such as physical activity, sleep patterns and substance use, as well as accommodation and financial issues add additional layers of impact. These aspects differ in the extent to which they can be modified, and actors such as universities and educators may be able to influence or improve them.

Student well‑being is a key indicator of academic outcomes (Van Bommel et al., 2024). Higher levels of well‑being enhance academic achievement and foster motivation and engagement in both classroom and extracurricular settings (Van Bommel et al., 2024; Bücker et al., 2018; Ryan et al., 2022). Prioritising well‑being within higher education is essential for creating environments in which students feel safe, supported and able to thrive academically and personally (Tran et al., 2023). Social developments, including the COVID-19 pandemic, have increased the focus on student well-being in recent years (Slimmen et al., 2025; Van Bommel et al., 2024). In the Dutch context, promoting student well‑being in higher education is a national policy priority, and the State and relevant organisations have set concrete goals to advance this agenda (Ministerie van OCW, 2023; Interstedelijk Studenten Overleg et al., 2023).

International and refugee-background students in the Netherlands make up a substantial share of the student population, estimated at roughly one sixth. [1] These two student groups tend to report poorer mental health than domestic students (RIVM & Trimbos Institute, 2025; RIVM & Trimbos Institute, 2023; Maharaj et al., 2025; Sanci et al., 2022; Corney et al., 2024; EUR, 2021; Muja et al., 2024; Soong & Mu, 2025), which is likely due to the additional challenges they face while studying and living in a new country. To help these students succeed in higher education, a better understanding of their specific challenges and needs is essential. In this article, we provide an overview of existing research on the following questions: What challenges do international and refugee-background students face? What could help to improve their well-being?

The selection of studies included in this overview was based on a systematic literature review using keywords and backward citation/snowballing. Our overview is based on over 60 studies in both English and Dutch, mainly from the past 10 years and conducted in different contexts and countries including the Netherlands, Australia, the UK, Germany, Hungary, the USA, China and Türkiye. By summarising international research, we provide knowledge that can be translated to the Dutch context. Although this literature review brings together current knowledge, future research should identify concrete initiatives in the Dutch context and assess their effectiveness from the students’ own perspective. A detailed examination of current institutional practices in the Netherlands falls outside the scope of our overview.

Based on the existing literature, we categorised challenges and needs as follows: linguistic, social-cultural, educational, health-related, practical and financial. The overview considers studies with both international and refugee-background students. While we recognise that these two groups may share certain challenges and needs, we are also aware that important differences exist due to the distinct characteristics and lived experiences of their members. Therefore, we differentiate between them where relevant. [2]

Challenges

Demands of academic and social language proficiency
One of the major challenges that international students and students with a refugee background face in higher education is the necessity of academic language proficiency (Kong et al., 2026; Berg, 2023; Earnest et al., 2010; Streitwieser et al., 2018; Ramsay & Baker, 2019; Arar, 2021; Nuffic, 2023; Klatter-Folmer & Weltens, 2017; Can et al., 2020; Van Dijk & Kooiman, 2023). While their proficiency level may allow them to function adequately in social settings, the demands of context-reduced communication, including more abstract content, academic jargon and culturally specific references, hinder these students’ meaningful participation in the classroom. Insecurity in language proficiency can make them hesitant to ask questions or seek clarification, which can further undermine academic performance and engagement.

Previous studies show that international and refugee-background students need more time to complete course work and struggle to keep up with the pace of speech during lectures (Mutongoza & Olawale, 2023; Van Dijk & Kooiman, 2023; Kong et al., 2026; Mangan & Winter, 2017). Moreover, some students felt that educators failed to acknowledge their language struggles and marked their course work more severely not because of insufficient content knowledge, but rather due to grammar or spelling mistakes (Mangan & Winter, 2017).

Language barriers were also cited as having a negative effect on the ability of international and refugee-background students to interact with peers and form social connections (Kong et al., 2026; Earnest et al., 2010; Streitwieser et al., 2018; Van Dijk & Kooiman, 2023; Soong & Mu, 2025). For instance, social interaction may feel tiring or awkward when students struggle to understand local accents or feel insecure about their own pronunciation. Such experiences can discourage them from engaging with the local community and may even lead to increased feelings of isolation. Among older refugee-background students, language barriers combined with age differences further limit the sense of connection and belonging (Van Dijk & Kooiman, 2023).

Needs

Increased language support and differentiation
To address the challenge mentioned above, international and refugee-background students who struggle to access academic content must be given opportunities to develop both their academic and social language proficiency. Multiple studies show that language courses – either general courses (Kong et al., 2026) or subject-specific language courses – are helpful to support students in academic modules (Nuffic, 2023). Another suggestion from education professionals in the Netherlands is to provide a language-focused transition year to improve proficiency in the language of instruction (Nuffic, 2023). This is further supported by studies showing that language proficiency predicts positive psychological well-being for international students and students with a refugee background (Yu et al., 2025; Luo et al., 2019; Zhang & Goodson, 2011; Mavisakalyan et al., 2025).

Moreover, higher education institutions could develop more inclusive practices. This includes professional development for educators on intercultural awareness and on how to support, scaffold and differentiate for speakers of other languages in their teaching (Kalocsányiová, 2022; Kozikoğlu & Aslan, 2018). Another key recommendation is that lecturers reflect critically on the language requirements in their courses and assignments (Nuffic, 2023). For example, does it matter if students make language mistakes in exams or written work, or is it sufficient that they demonstrate subject knowledge regardless of language accuracy?

The literature also proposes multilingual practices to support social integration. A study by Hessing and Klinkenberg (2024) on students’ sense of belonging in the Netherlands found that international students would welcome more courses and activities delivered in English, as many feel disconnected from local peers. These students believe that this would strengthen their sense of belonging and encourage greater participation in extracurricular activities. Furthermore, facilitating joint activities for domestic and refugee-background students can boost language acquisition (Kalocsányiová, 2022).

Challenges

The importance of a sense of belonging, and why it is difficult to attain
A sense of belonging, which has been defined as feeling connected, supported, valued, respected, included and able to fit in, is an essential component of student well being and academic success (Dias Broens et al., 2024). Belonging in higher education can involve multiple dimensions depending on how it is defined and measured; our overview focuses specifically on its social dimension. For international and refugee-background students, everyday interactions strongly shape well-being, meaning that feeling disconnected from peers can have negative effects (Soong & Mu, 2025; Oduwaye et al., 2023). Research shows that international and refugee-background students often feel they do not belong in university settings and face greater risks of marginalisation and discrimination in both academic and employment contexts (Mangan & Winter, 2017; Dias-Broens et al., 2024; Oduwaye et al., 2023; Cena et al., 2021). Refugee-background students in particular reported that peers were unwilling to collaborate with them and dismissed their ideas, leaving them feeling inferior, stressed and less motivated to engage in learning (Mangan & Winter, 2017). According to conversations with refugee-background students in the Netherlands, experiences of loneliness and limited support can further hinder their personal, social, linguistic and academic development (Abdulsattar et al., 2023).

The lack of connection between domestic and international or refugee-background students arises from factors on both sides. Domestic students may be hesitant to form friendships, especially in less diverse contexts where people may have limited exposure to international peers, and because they already have established social circles or cannot relate to the life experiences of refugee and migrant peers (Kong et al., 2016; Soong & Mu, 2025; Cena et al., 2021). At the same time, according to research conducted in the Netherlands and other countries, international and refugee-background students may hesitate to approach locals due to differences in age, life experiences, family responsibilities, financial issues, social norms or language barriers (Nuffic, 2023; Abdulsattar et al., 2023; Van Dijk & Kooiman, 2023; Mangan & Winter, 2017; Oduwaye et al., 2023). Some must balance work, caregiving and study, leaving little time for socialising, while common student activities such as going out for drinks may not align with their cultural or religious preferences or financial situation. Language barriers and unfamiliar social norms can make communication feel awkward and further limit interaction (Mangan & Winter, 2017; Abdulsattar et al., 2023).

Identity and stigma
Many international and refugee-background students face the task of making sense of their cultural identity while adapting to a new environment. Refugee-background students in particular tend to maintain strong emotional ties to their country of origin while trying to build a new life, and this may create tensions between their past and present selves (Abdulsattar et al., 2023). Confusion around cultural identity is common, with students feeling caught between conflicting cultures and questioning who they are (Mangan & Winter, 2017; Brown & Brown, 2013). Gender expectations can add further pressure: in some cultures, women are not encouraged to study, socialise or live independently, whereas the host country promotes higher education and personal autonomy (Mangan & Winter, 2017). Women who aim to meet these new expectations may face marginalisation within their own communities, and balancing domestic responsibilities with academic work can hinder their educational progress.

Among refugee-background students in particular, stigma associated with this label can affect their confidence and sense of belonging. Refugees are often portrayed as weak, dependent or lacking potential and even well-intentioned institutions may reinforce these narratives by overemphasising vulnerability (Bauer et al., 2021). Such perceptions can make students doubt their abilities and feel pressure to constantly prove themselves in higher education (Mangan & Winter, 2017; Abdulsattar et al., 2023). Some choose to hide their refugee background to avoid negative associations, fearing discrimination or being viewed as ‘parasites’ benefiting from the State (Mangan & Winter, 2017). Experiences of being stereotyped or treated as different can intensify isolation (Abdulsattar et al., 2023).

Needs

Improving students’ sense of belonging
Being part of a student community provides students with a sense of belonging, security and structure (Laidlaw et al., 2015). According to studies in the Dutch context, higher education institutions play an important role in helping international and refugee-background students build networks during their studies (Nuffic, 2022; Nuffic, 2023). Teaching staff can support this by creating space during lectures for students to get to know one another through introductions or ice-breaking activities, and by encouraging participation in study associations or buddy programmes. Particularly in the Netherlands, it has been found that participating in an introduction week and a pre-academic programme is effective in fostering students’ sense of belonging (Van Bommel & Assen, 2025; Van Lamoen et al., 2024).

Universities can also set up online communities or organise social activities. When organising social activities, they should be mindful of students’ cultural and religious backgrounds. Taking part in extracurricular activities can reduce loneliness, help students feel supported and improve their well-being (Laidlaw et al., 2015). Meaningful or “warm” integration is further supported when students maintain regular contact with the university (Streitwieser et al., 2018).

Reframing a stigmatised label
Positive, value-added portrayals can be effective in boosting self-confidence, especially in the case of refugee-background students. In a series of experiments in Germany and online, refugees were depicted as strong individuals who had grown through difficult experiences, persisted despite challenges and felt proud of their achievements (Bauer et al., 2021). Refugee-background students who were exposed to this positive framing felt more confident and prepared for university and presented themselves more assertively than those who were not. They were also more likely to choose challenging learning tasks. These findings, together with those from a similar study (Walton & Cohen, 2011), suggest that reframing identity – from vulnerability to resilience – can meaningfully support well-being and academic success.

Challenges

Adaptation issues, unrecognised needs and hesitation to seek help
Many refugee-background students face disrupted educational histories, which can limit both access to and success in higher education (Berg, 2023). Many enter university with interrupted schooling or varying levels of prior education, and their previous qualifications may not be recognised, making it harder for them to find appropriate study pathways or employment (Earnest et al., 2010; Mangan & Winter, 2017).

Once enrolled, both international and refugee-background students must adapt to a new educational system with unfamiliar teaching styles, new technologies and different expectations around independence and self-direction (Earnest et al., 2010; Kong et al., 2026; Mangan & Winter, 2017; Oduwaye et al., 2023; Cena et al., 2021). These simultaneous learning demands place them at a disadvantage compared to peers who can focus solely on course content.

Additionally, the specific needs of international and refugee-background students may remain unseen by academic staff (Kong et al., 2026; Brown & Brown, 2013). Policies that emphasise equal treatment of all students can unintentionally obscure the unique challenges faced by these students (Kong et al., 2026). At the same time, many international and refugee-background students come from cultural contexts where expressing concerns or seeking help from authority figures is uncommon, making them hesitant to approach staff. Difficulties understanding local communication norms – both formal and informal – can further limit their ability to articulate needs or access support.

Needs

A more tailored educational approach
The needs of international and refugee-background students are shaped by their previous experiences and may differ from those of domestic students (Nuffic, 2023; Oduwaye et al., 2023). Educational policies should acknowledge the specific needs of these students (Kong et al., 2026; Mangan & Winter, 2017). Peers and educators alike should value these students’ prior knowledge and skills (Streitwieser et al., 2018), and multilingualism should be seen as an asset rather than a deficit (Bilic et al., 2025). Making cultural norms and institutional expectations more explicit and using trauma-informed and culturally responsive teaching approaches can support learning (Bilic et al., 2025; Nuffic, 2023).

Staff training and inclusive teaching practices
University staff may lack sufficient understanding of how international or refugee backgrounds influence learning (Kong et al., 2016). Training in intercultural awareness can help educators recognise cultural dimensions that shape students’ experiences and behaviours and identify issues that may impede learning (Ramsay & Baker, 2019; Mangan & Winter, 2017). Universities should ensure that staff demonstrate empathy and develop confidence in teaching culturally diverse groups (Nuffic, 2023; Bilic et al., 2025). Educators play a key role in making group work inclusive. In the Dutch context, international and refugee-background students often seem to struggle with language proficiency or social connection, making group assignments challenging without proper support (Nuffic, 2022; Nuffic, 2023).

Preparation and support for students
Subject-specific preparation, tailored orientation programmes, one-to-one academic support and peer groups can help students navigate the university environment and improve retention (Streitwieser et al., 2018; Earnest et al., 2010; Nuffic, 2023). These forms of support are especially valuable during the first year, when students are still learning to navigate academic expectations and institutional structures. Furthermore, international and refugee-background students may be unfamiliar with the learning style expected at their host higher education institutions (Nuffic, 2023; Gong et al., 2021). Early information sessions can clarify expectations, while educators can encourage their students to reflect on learning competences and collaboration. Training in proactive attitudes and local academic culture can help students adjust and participate more confidently and fully.

Challenges

Psychological distress and underreporting
Evidence suggests that psychological distress is common among higher education students. In a study conducted at an Australian university, nearly one third of students experienced psychological distress and more than twenty per cent reported moderate to severe anxiety in the previous two weeks (Sanci et al., 2022). While domestic students reported slightly higher rates of some mental health concerns, international students reported lower levels of social support and less awareness and use of available health services. With domestic students reporting more mental health issues overall, the study highlights the likelihood that international students may underreport their difficulties (Sanci et al., 2022).

According to a large national survey in the Netherlands examining higher education students’ mental health and substance-use patterns, mental health tends to be better among older students (particularly those aged 30 or above) and students with a part-time job (RIVM & Trimbos Institute, 2025). The study also shows that certain groups of students are more vulnerable to poorer mental health outcomes. Women, students who do not identify within the gender binary and LGBTQ+ students are more likely to report relatively poor mental health. Among international students, patterns are mixed. They tend to report less stress overall, but more life fatigue and loneliness compared to domestic students. Risky alcohol use is generally lower among international students and students with a migration background. However, they are more likely to use certain other substances; for example, they report more frequent cannabis use and higher rates of daily smoking and vaping.

Barriers to seeking help
Barriers to seeking help are well documented in the literature. [3] Across studies, stigma, limited knowledge of available services and structural obstacles such as long waiting times are mentioned as significant limitations (Broglia et al., 2021; Corney et al., 2024; Dunley & Papadopoulos, 2019). Cultural and language barriers, as well as beliefs that support should only be sought for severe problems, further discourage help-seeking behaviour among international students (Corney et al., 2024). Personal factors also play a role; some students avoid seeking help from family members to prevent causing concern and instead rely on their friends’ advice, which may not always be appropriate (Laidlaw et al., 2015). Negative attitudes toward professional support and prior unsatisfactory experiences may further reduce the likelihood of help-seeking (Rickwood et al., 2005).

More health challenges among refugee-background students
Within the diverse population of international students, some groups may face additional and more complex health challenges. This is the case for refugee-background students, who may face specific challenges linked to their past experiences and challenges related to the ongoing process of integration, including persistent physical and psychological issues stemming from the refugee experience (Kong et al., 2026). Many have lived through severe adversity such as violence, persecution, hunger or extended stays in refugee camps. Such experiences can have lasting impacts on mental health and well-being throughout their lives (Mangan & Winter, 2017). Mental health challenges may arise from both pre-migration and post-migration stressors, as well as from uncertainty about the future, with their cumulative impact in some cases resembling patterns associated with complex post-traumatic stress disorder (Berg, 2023; de Silva et al., 2021). These issues can contribute to instability, reduced self-esteem, feelings of lost time and inhibited academic performance, particularly when combined with social isolation or lack of recognition of prior experiences (Berg, 2023).

Students from refugee backgrounds may also experience strong feelings of guilt and concern about family members who remain in their countries of origin (Kong et al., 2026). Concern for loved ones in potentially dangerous situations can create psychological strain and difficulties concentrating in class (Mangan & Winter, 2017). When students feel unable or ashamed to share these concerns, this strain can intensify isolation and stress and may negatively affect learning outcomes or lead to dropout (Mangan & Winter, 2017).

Needs

Facilitating help-seeking behaviour
Universities play a key role in encouraging help-seeking behaviour among students. They can contribute by destigmatising mental health difficulties through open discussions and preventive activities that aim to reduce self-stigmatising beliefs (Broglia et al., 2021). Staff training can further increase awareness of student mental health needs and equip staff to encourage help-seeking and make appropriate referrals (Broglia et al., 2021). Universities can also support students by offering clear information on how to seek help and by ensuring timely and easy access to professional mental health services (Broglia et al., 2021; Rickwood et al., 2005), although the extent of their responsibility to provide such services may vary across national contexts.

Early assessment, prevention-focused programmes and faculty involvement can further improve engagement with support services and reduce stigma (Sakiz & Jencius, 2024). Targeted approaches that promote flexible and context-sensitive coping skills, such as integrating stress management sessions into curricula and providing accessible counselling and structured peer support, can strengthen student well-being (Slimmen et al., 2025). In addition, support related to stress management, learning strategies and career preparation may help students maintain their well-being throughout their studies (Szepe & Meszaros, 2024). Culturally sensitive and inclusive mental health services are essential to ensure support is responsive to diverse needs (Sakiz & Jencius, 2024).

Alongside institutional initiatives, social support also plays an important role in promoting help-seeking behaviour. Previous research shows that higher perceived social support is associated with stronger intentions to seek help and can facilitate actual help-seeking among university students (Nagai, 2015). Conversely, when social support is low, even individuals who recognise a need for help may be less likely to seek it. Strengthening students’ social support networks may therefore encourage help-seeking, particularly for those who might otherwise struggle to access support.

Challenges

Financial constraints
Financial struggles often begin during the migration process itself, shaped by factors such as students’ family economic background and their country of origin. After arrival, these challenges can intensify due to exclusion in the host country, limited financial support, a shortage of affordable housing and inadequate social protection (Wilson et al., 2023).

Studies show that international students frequently report financial stress related to factors such as limited work permits, fewer job opportunities and higher tuition fees in many host countries (Amanvermez et al., 2024). In addition, when families invest in their education, international students may feel pressure to justify that investment, with parents sometimes influencing their career choices (Cena et al., 2021). Financial concerns are widely reported among international students as a key adjustment difficulty in higher education, with financial aid–related issues ranking among the most reported adjustment problems (Can et al., 2020).

Students with refugee backgrounds may experience particularly intense financial constraints. Ongoing socio-economic pressures after resettlement, including financial hardship and family responsibilities, can shape students’ ability to participate fully in higher education (Berg, 2023; Earnest et al., 2010; Kong et al., 2026; Ramsay & Baker, 2019).
Financial constraints also influence students’ access to the digital tools required for higher education. Students may lack both experience with digital technologies and the financial means to access them, making participation in blended or online learning particularly challenging (Kong et al., 2026; Ramsay & Baker, 2019).

Housing affordability and living conditions
Housing affordability and quality is another important practical factor affecting students’ well-being, according to the literature. While access to safe housing, a low-crime environment, good public transport and social networks was identified as an important factor improving well-being, difficulties in finding accommodation, high housing costs and shared accommodation negatively affected student well-being (Cena et al, 2021; Corney et al., 2024). The housing shortage is a major challenge students face when choosing the Netherlands as a study destination, with students from the European Economic Area (EEA) being even more likely to experience the housing shortage as a challenge than students from outside the EEA (Nuffic, 2026b).

Research in the Dutch context also highlights how residential insecurity disproportionately affects international students’ subjective well-being (Van Aggelen, 2024). Difficulties in securing housing, combined with language barriers, intercultural differences and time-consuming procedures, can increase stress and anxiety among international students compared to domestic students. One study on international students’ sense of belonging in the Netherlands found that temporary or poor-quality housing can undermine students’ sense of belonging and home, and that institutions should respond more effectively to these issues (Hessing & Klinkenberg, 2024).

Recent research in the Netherlands further shows that international students face significant structural barriers in accessing suitable housing in this country, with only two in five students satisfied with the information provided before and during their stay (Lommertzen, J., & Van Mensvoort, C., 2026). Although most students arrange accommodation in advance, nearly one-third require three months or more to secure housing. The study also shows that students frequently encounter discrimination in the housing market (e.g., ‘no internationals’), higher rents and also scams, with over half of students reporting that they pay more for housing than Dutch students. Due to limited availability and high costs, some students are even forced to temporarily stay in hotels or relocate to other municipalities.

Needs

Improving living conditions
Improving living conditions and providing housing support are central to supporting well-being (Hessing & Klinkenberg, 2024; Lommertzen, J., & Van Mensvoort, C., 2026). Strategies such as fostering social cohesion between domestic and international students, as well as transparent communication about housing market realities and the availability of housing support services have been proposed as ways to mitigate the negative well-being impacts of housing insecurity in host countries (Van Aggelen, 2024; Lommertzen, J., & Van Mensvoort, C., 2026).

Expanding financial support
The expansion of financial support is another key need. Scholarships and other forms of financial assistance, which are limited in the Dutch context, can alleviate financial pressures and strengthen students’ capacity to remain in higher education (Earnest et al., 2010; Nuffic, forthcoming). Such support may also reduce the need to prioritise paid work over academic commitments, as many students face challenges in balancing their studies with responsibilities such as supporting family members abroad, meeting household expenses and covering personal costs including rent, tuition and food. Financial considerations can also be addressed through pre-arrival requirements that aim to ensure students have sufficient resources to undertake their studies, a common practice in the case of Dutch universities (IND, 2026).

Overall, the literature shows that international and refugee-background students may face a wide range of linguistic, social-cultural, educational, health-related, practical and financial challenges that can influence their well-being. These challenges are often interrelated and range from insecurity in language proficiency to difficulties in securing housing, influencing students’ ability to participate meaningfully and succeed. Addressing these issues requires institutions to recognise the specific circumstances of these groups and to strengthen support structures across academic, social and practical domains.
The identified needs highlight clear opportunities for improvement. By investing in areas such as inclusive teaching, accessible mental health support and stable living conditions, higher education institutions, governments and other actors can help ensure that international and refugee-background students feel supported and are able to thrive.

In this overview, we have brought together research conducted in the Netherlands and internationally across a range of countries. However, studies focusing specifically on the Dutch context remain limited. Future research should therefore address this gap by further examining the needs of international and refugee background students in the Netherlands, as well as evaluating the effectiveness of relevant initiatives within the Dutch higher education system.

1. In the 2025–26 academic year, 129,764 international students were enrolled in full‑degree programmes at publicly funded Dutch higher‑education institutions. They accounted for 16.8% of the total wo and hbo student population of 771,757 (Nuffic, 2026). National data on students with a refugee background are unavailable. The UAF Foundation reports supporting more than 4,000 refugee‑background students in 2024 (UAF, 2024), suggesting that the actual number of students in this group likely exceeds 5,000. Combined with approximately 130,000 international students, these groups account for at least 135,000 students – around 17% of the total student population.
2. While we recognise that students with a refugee background may experience different challenges and needs depending on the age at which they arrive in the host country, this distinction is not considered in this literature review.
3. Even though some of these studies analyse the whole student population without distinguishing between domestic and foreign students, their findings are also relevant to international students and students with a refugee background.